Jazirah Arab sebelum kedatangan agama Islam merupakan sebuah kawasan yang tidak maju. Kebanyakan orang Arab merupakan penyembah berhala dan ada sebagian yang merupakan pengikut agama-agama Kristen dan Yahudi. Mekkah adalah tempat yang suci bagi bangsa Arab ketika itu, karena di sana terdapat berhala-berhala agama mereka, telaga Zamzam, dan yang terpenting adalah Ka'bah.

Masa awal

Islam bermula pada tahun 622 ketika wahyu pertama diturunkan kepada rasul yang terakhir yaitu Muhammad bin Abdullah di Gua Hira', Arab Saudi.

Muhammad dilahirkan di Mekkah pada tanggal 10 Rabiul Awal Tahun Gajah (570 atau 571 masehi). Ia dilahirkan ditengah-tengah suku Quraish, dalam kehidupan suku-suku padang pasir yang suka berperang. Muhammad dilahirkan dalam keadaan yatim, sebab ayahnya Abdullah wafat ketika ia masih berada di dalam kandungan. Pada saat usianya masih 6 tahun, ibunya Aminah meninggal dunia. Sepeninggalan ibunya, Muhammad dibesarkan oleh pamannya yaitu Abu Talib, dan dilanjutkan oleh kakeknya Abdul Muthalib. Muhammad kemudian menikah dengan Siti Khadijah dan menjalani kehidupan secara sederhana.

Ketika Muhammad berusia 40 tahun, ia mulai mendapatkan wahyu yang disampaikan Malaikat Jibril, dan sesudahnya selama beberapa waktu mulai mengajarkan ajaran Islam secara tertutup kepada para sahabatnya. Ajaran Islam kemudian juga disampaikan secara terbuka kepada seluruh penduduk Mekkah, yang mana sebagian menerima dan sebagian lainnya menentangnya.

Pada tahun 622 masehi, Muhammad dan pengikutnya berpindah ke Madinah. Peristiwa ini disebut Hijrah, dan semenjak peristiwa itulah dasar permulaan perhitungan kalender Islam. Di Madinah, Muhammad dapat menyatukan orang-orang anshar (kaum muslimin dari Madinah) dan muhajirin (kaum muslimin dari Mekkah), sehingga semakin kuatlah umat Islam. Dalam setiap peperangan yang dilakukan melawan orang-orang kafir, umat Islam selalu mendapatkan kemenangan. Dalam fase awal ini, tak terhindarkan terjadinya perang antara Mekkah dan Madinah.

Keunggulan diplomasi Muhammad pada saat perjanjian Hudaibiyah, menyebabkan umat Islam memasuki fase yang sangat menentukan. Banyak penduduk Mekkah yang sebelumnya menjadi musuh kemudian berbalik memeluk Islam, sehingga ketika penaklukan kota Mekkah oleh umat Islam tidak terjadi pertumpahan darah. Ketika Muhammad wafat, hampir seluruh Jazirah Arab telah memeluk agama Islam.

Khalifah Rashidin

Khalifah Rashidin atau "para pemimpin yang baik" diawali dengan kepemimpinan Abu Bakar, dan dilanjutkan oleh kepemimpinan Umar bin Khattab, Utsman bin Affan dan Ali bin Abu Thalib. Pada masa ini umat Islam mencapai kestabilan politik dan ekonomi. Abu Bakar memperkuat dasar-dasar kenegaraan umat Islam dan mengatasi pemberontakan beberapa suku-suku Arab yang terjadi setelah meninggalnya Muhammad. Umar bin Khattab, Utsman bin Affan dan Ali bin Abu Thalib berhasil memimpin balatentara dan kaum Muslimin pada umumnya untuk mendakwahkan Islam, terutama ke Syam, Mesir, dan Irak. Dengan takluknya negeri-negeri tersebut, banyak harta rampasan perang dan wilayah kekuasaan yang dapat diraih oleh umat Islam.

Masa kekhalifahan selanjutnya

Setelah periode Khalifah Rasyidin, kepemimpinan umat Islam berganti dari tangan ke tangan dengan pemimpinnya yang juga disebut "khalifah", atau terkadang "amirul mukminin", "sultan", dan sebagainya. Pada periode ini khalifah tidak lagi ditentukan berdasarkan orang yang terbaik di kalangan umat Islam, melainkan secara turun-temurun dalam satu dinasti (bahasa Arab: bani) sehingga banyak yang menyamakannya dengan kerajaan; misalnya kekhalifahan Bani Umayyah, Bani Abbasiyyah, hingga Bani Utsmaniyyah.

Besarnya kekuasaan kekhalifahan Islam telah menjadikannya salah satu kekuatan politik yang terkuat dan terbesar di dunia pada saat itu. Timbulnya tempat-tempat pembelajaran ilmu-ilmu agama, filsafat, sains, dan tata bahasa Arab di berbagai wilayah dunia Islam telah mewujudkan satu kontinuitas kebudayaan Islam yang agung. Banyak ahli-ahli ilmu pengetahuan bermunculan dari berbagai negeri-negeri Islam, terutamanya pada zaman keemasan Islam sekitar abad ke-7 sampai abad ke-13 masehi.

Luasnya wilayah penyebaran agama Islam dan terpecahnya kekuasaan kekhalifahan yang sudah dimulai sejak abad ke-8, menyebabkan munculnya berbagai otoritas-otoritas kekuasaan terpisah yang berbentuk "kesultanan"; misalnya Kesultanan Safawi, Kesultanan Turki Seljuk, Kesultanan Mughal, Kesultanan Samudera Pasai dan Kesultanan Malaka, yang telah menjadi kesultanan-kesultanan yang memiliki kekuasaan yang kuat dan terkenal di dunia. Meskipun memiliki kekuasaan terpisah, kesultanan-kesultanan tersebut secara nominal masih menghormati dan menganggap diri mereka bagian dari kekhalifahan Islam.

Pada kurun ke-18 dan ke-19 masehi, banyak kawasan-kawasan Islam jatuh ke tangan penjajah Eropa. Kesultanan Utsmaniyyah (Kerajaan Ottoman) yang secara nominal dianggap sebagai kekhalifahan Islam terakhir, akhirnya tumbang selepas Perang Dunia I.

Rise of empire (632–750)

Further information: Succession to Muhammad, Muslim conquests, and Muslim Empire

Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to Medina, from where he united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".

The territory of the Caliphate in 750

His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories.

When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu'awiyah, who was governor of Levant, seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty.

These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a. After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the Maghrib and Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula, former Visigothic Hispania) and the Narbonnese Gaul} as well as expand Muslim territory into the Indian subcontinent.. While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism.

For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only; the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750. Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "Islamic Golden Age", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.

Golden Age (750–1258)

Artistic depiction of the Battle of Hattin in 1187, where Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin's Ayyubid forces

By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, Persia, and Central Asia emirates formed as provinces broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously homogenized Muslim world where the Shia Fatimids contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. By 1055 the Seljuq Turks had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph's titular authority. During this time expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both conquest and peaceful proselytism even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan West Africa, Central Asia, Volga Bulgaria and the Malay archipelago.

The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious developments. The major hadith collections were compiled and the four modern Sunni Madh'habs were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist al-Shafi'i; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars. Philosophers Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed. Finally, Sufism and Shi'ism both underwent major changes in the 9th century. Sufism became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams.

The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among medieval ecclesiastical Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the antichrist and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman. In the medieval period, a few Arab philosophers like the poet Al-Ma'arri adopted a critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides contrasted Islamic views of morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated.

Starting in the 9th century, Muslim conquests in Christian Europe began to be reversed. The Reconquista was launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, and Muslim Italian possessions were lost to the Normans. From the 11th century onwards a series of wars known as the Crusades brought the Muslim world into conflict with Christendom. Successful at first in their capturing of the Holy land which resulted in the establishment of the Crusader states, Crusader gains in the Holy Land were reversed by later Muslim generals such as Saladin, who recaptured Jerusalem during the Second Crusade. The Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbasid dynasty at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258, which saw the Muslims overrun by the superior Mongol army. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier Mamluks took control in an uprising in 1250.

Ottomans and Islamic empires in India (1258–1918)

The Seljuk Turks fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 13th century. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman empire (named after Osman I) was established with a string of conquests that included the Balkans, parts of Greece, and western Anatolia. In 1453 under Mehmed II the Ottomans laid siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. The Byzantine fortress succumbed shortly thereafter, having been battered by superior Ottoman cannonry.

Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students. Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the Masnavi, a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet Rumi. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur'an.

The Taj Mahal is a mausoleum located in Agra, India, that was built under Mughal

In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained powerful for two centuries. Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529. After the invasion of Persia, and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, Delhi became the most important cultural centre of the Muslim east.  Many Islamic dynasties ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent starting from the 12th century. The prominent ones include the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal empire (1526–1857). These empires helped in the spread of Islam in South Asia. but by the mid-18th century the British empire had ended the Mughal dynasty. In the 18th century the Wahhabi movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.

By the 17th and 18th centuries, despite attempts at modernization, the Ottoman empire had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military advantages. In the 19th century, the rise of nationalism resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of World War I.

In the 19th century, the Salafi, Deobandi and Barelwi reform movements were initiated.

Modern times (1918–present)

After World War I losses, the remnants of the empire were parceled out as European protectorates or spheres of influence. Since then most Muslim societies have become independent nations, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of Israel have assumed prominence.

The 20th century saw the creation of many new Islamic "revivalist" movements. Groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. Sometimes called Islamist, they see Western cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private question of importance. In countries like Iran and Afghanistan (under the Taliban), revolutionary movements replaced secular regimes with Islamist states, while transnational groups like Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda engage in terrorism to further their goals. In contrast, Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".

In modern times Islam has come under criticism from idealogues such as Robert Spencer and Ibn Warraq, who criticize Islamic law and question the morality of the Qur'an; for example, they say that its contents justify mistreatment of women and encourage antisemitic remarks by Muslim theologians; such claims are disputed by Muslim scholars. Montgomery Watt, Norman Daniel, and Edward Said dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and medieval European polemics. The rise of Islamophobia, according to Carl Ernst, had contributed to the negative views about Islam and Muslims in the West.